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1、Chapter Five Semantics1.The Study of MeaningnSemantics:qthestudyoflanguagemeaning.qInourdiscussion,wewilllimitourselvestothestudyofmeaningfromalinguisticpointofview.nPragmatics:qThemeaningofutterances2.Semantic MeaningnSemantics is the study of meaning in language.nMeaning has been studied for thous
2、ands of years by philosophers,logicians and linguists.E.g.Plato&Aristotle.3.The meaning of meaningnC.K.Ogden&I.A.Richards(1923).The Meaning of Meaning.nJohn means to write.nA green light means to go.nHealth means everything.nHis look was full of meaning.nWhat is the meaning of life?nWhat does capita
3、list mean to you?nWhat does cornea mean?nThe transparent,convex,anterior portion of the outer fibrous coat of the eyeball that covers the iris and the pupil and is continuous with the sclera.nC.KOgdenandI.A.Richard,intheirfamousbookTheMeaningofMeaning(1923),havegivenalistoftwenty-twodefinitionsofthe
4、wordmeaning.nOneaimofsemanticsistodistinguishthesedifferentwaysinwhichlanguage“means”.Some views concerning the study of meaning nNamingtheory(Plato)nTheconceptualistviewnContextualism(Bloomfield)nBehaviorismNaming theory(Plato)nThenamingtheorywasproposedbyGreekscholarPlato,thatis:nWordsarenamesorla
5、belsfortheobjectstheystandfor.nE.g.:tree,car,fruit,dogNaming theory(Plato)nLimitations:1)Applicabletonounsonly.2)Therearenounswhichdenotethingsthatdonotexistintherealworld,e.g.ghost,dragon,unicorn,phenix3)Therearenounsthatdonotrefertophysicalobjectsbutabstractnotions,e.g.joy,impulse,hatredThe concep
6、tualist viewnTheconceptualistviewhasbeenheldbyOdgenandRichard.The conceptualist viewnTheconceptualistviewholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto;nrather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.Ogden and Richards:semantic triangleSym
7、bol/formword/phrase/sentenceReferentobject in the world of experienceThought/Reference conceptairplaneThe conceptualist viewnLimitations:(1)thelinkbetweenthesymbolandtheconceptremainsunclarified.(2)peopledonotactuallytrytoseetheimageofsomethingintheirmindseyeeverytimetheycomeacrossalinguisticsymbol.
8、The contextualism nMeaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,use,contextelementscloselylinkedwithlanguagebehavior.nTherepresentativeofthisapproachwasJ.R.FirthnAndwasfurtherstrengthenedbyBloomfield.The contextualism n“Iwasnearthatbankyesterday.”n“Riverbank”or“financialsituation”nIdontlikeher.Sheistall
9、andthinandmoveslikeacrane.nIdolikeher.Sheistallandthinandmoveslikeacrane.The contextualism nTwotypesofcontextsarerecognized:qSituationalcontext:spatiotemporalsituationqLinguisticcontext:theprobabilityofawordsco-occurrenceorcollocation.Behaviorism nBehavioristsattempted to definemeaningas“thesituatio
10、ninwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer”.nThestoryofJackandJill:JillJackS_r-s_RLexical meaning nSenseandreferencearebothconcernedwiththestudyofwordmeaning.Theyaretworelatedbutdifferentaspectsofmeaning.Lexical meaning nSense-isconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform
11、.nItisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;nitisabstractandde-contextualized.nItistheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompilersareinterestedin.Lexical meaning nE.g:bachelor=nevermarriedthesenseofredincolorsystem:brown,yellow,orangeetc.Lexical meaning nReference-whatalinguisticformreferstointhere
12、al,physicalworld;nitdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.nE.g.:things,actions,eventsandqualities.Lexical meaning nTreereferstotherealtree.nBookreferstoaobjectbook.Lexical meaning nItisnotalwayspossibletodrawaclear-cutlinebetweensenseandreference.No
13、te:nLinguisticformshavingthesamesensemayhavedifferentreferencesindifferentsituations;ontheotherhand,therearealsooccasions,whenlinguisticformswiththesamereferencemightdifferinsense,ne.g.themorningstarandtheeveningstar,risingsuninthemorningandthesunsetatdusk.Sense RelationsnSynonymynPolysemynHomonymyn
14、HyponymynAntonymyGradableComplementaryConverseSynonymynbuy/purchasenthrifty/economical/stingynautumn/fallnflat/apartmentntube/undergroundSynonymynSynonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.nWordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.nBecauseofhistoricalreasons,Englishvocabularycontainstw
15、ocategoriesofwords:nativewordsandloanwords.SynonymynDialectalsynonyms-synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects,ne.g.autumn-fall,biscuit-cracker,petrolgasolinenStylisticsynonyms-synonymsdifferinginstyle,ne.g.kid,child,offspring;start,begin,commence;SynonymynSynonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluative
16、meaning,ne.g.collaborator-accomplice,nCollocationalsynonyms,ne.g.accuseof,chargewith,rebukefor;SynonymynSemanticallydifferentsynonyms,ne.g.amaze,astound,PolysemynPolysemy-thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning,nE.g.:“foot”nThepartofthebodyattheendofthelegnAmeasurementoflengthnThebottomofsomethingPo
17、lysemynE.g.“table”maymean:nApieceoffurniturenAllthepeopleseatedatatablenThefoodthatisputonatablenAthinflatpieceofstone,metalwood,etc.nOrderlyarrangementoffacts,figures,etc.HomonymynHomonymy-thephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,e.g.differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,o
18、rinboth.nHomophone-whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,nE.g.rain-reign,night/knight,HomonymynHomogragh-whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,nE.g.tear(n.)-tear(v.),lead(n.)-lead(v.),nCompletehomonym-whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,nE.g.ball,bank,watch,scale,fast,Note:nApolysemicwordistheresu
19、ltoftheevolutionoftheprimarymeaningoftheword(theetymologyoftheword);nWhilecompletehomonymsareoftenbroughtintobeingbycoincidence.Homonymy“Howisbreadmade?”“Iknowthat!”Alicecriedeagerly.“Youtakesomeflour”“Wheredoyoupicktheflower?”theWhiteQueenasked.“Inagarden,orinthehedges?”“Well,itisntpickedatall,”Ali
20、ceexplained;“itsground”“Howmanyacresofground?”saidtheWhiteQueen.HyponymynHyponymy-thesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.nSuperordinate:thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaning.HyponymynHyponyms:thewordwhichismorespecificinmeaning.nCo-hyponyms:hyponymsofthesamesuperordin
21、ate.HyponymynSuperordinate:flowernHyponyms:rose,tulip,lily,chrysanthemum,peony,narcissus,nSuperordinate:furniturenHyponyms:bed,table,desk,dresser,wardrobe,sofa,Animalbird fish insect animal human animal tiger lion elephant .AntonymsnAntonymy-isusedforoppositenessofmeaning.nAntonyms-wordsareoppositei
22、nmeaningGradable antonymsnGradableantonyms-thereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair,e.g.old-young,hot-cold,tall-short,Gradable antonymy ngood-badnlong-shortnbig-smallqCan be modified by adverbs of degree like very.qCan have comparative forms.qCan be asked with how.Complementary anto
23、nymsnComplementaryantonyms-thedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother,e.g.alive-dead,male-female,Complementary antonymynalive:deadnmale:femalenpresent:absentninnocent:guiltynodd:evennpass:failnboy:girlnhit:missRelational oppositesnRelationalopposites-pairsofwordsthatexhibitthereversa
24、lofarelationshipbetweenthetwoitems.nConverseantonymyRelational antonymynbuy:sellnlend:borrowngive:receivenparent:childnhusband:wifenteacher:studentnabove:belownbefore:afternhost:guestnemployer:employeeSense relations between sentences n(1)XissynonymouswithYn(2)XisinconsistentwithYn(3)XentailsYn(4)Xp
25、resupposesYn(5)Xisacontradictionn(6)XissemanticallyanomalousX is synonymous with YnX:Hewasabachelorallhislife.Y:Henevergotmarriedallhislife.nX:Theboykilledthecat.Y:Thecatwaskilledbytheboy.nIfXistrue,Yistrue;ifXisfalse,Yisfalse.X is inconsistent with YnX:Heissingle.nY:Hehasawife.nX:Thisismyfirstvisit
26、toBeijing.nY:IhavebeentoBeijingtwice.nIfXistrue,Yisfalse;ifXisfalse,Yistrue.X entails YnX:Johnmarriedablondheiress.nY:Johnmarriedablond.nX:MarryhasbeentoBeijing.nY:MarryhasbeentoChina.nIfXentailsY,thenthemeaningofXisincludedinY.X entails YnEntailmentisarelationofinclusion.IfXentailsY,thenthemeaningo
27、fXisincludedinY.nIfXistrue,Yisnecessarilytrue;ifXisfalse,Ymaybetrueorfalse.X presupposes YnX:Hisbikeneedsrepairing.nY:Hehasabike.nPaulhasgivenupsmoking.nPauloncesmoked.nIfXistrue,Ymustbetrue;IfXisfalse,Yisstilltrue.X is a contradictionn*Myunmarriedsisterismarriedtoabachelor.n*Theorphansparentsarepre
28、ttywell-off.X is semantically anomalousn*Themanispregnant.n*Thetablehasbadintentions.n*Sincerityshakeshandswiththeblackapple.Analysis of meaning nComponentialanalysisnPredicationanalysisComponential analysisnComponentialanalysis-awaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning.nTheapproachisbasedonthebeliefthatthemeanin
29、gofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.Componential AnalysisnHUMANqman(+ADULT,+MALE)qwoman(+ADULT,+FEMALE)qboy(-ADULT,+MALE)qgirl(-ADULT,+FEMALE)Componential AnalysisComponential AnalysisComponential AnalysisComponential Analysisnfather:PARENT(x,y)&MALE(x)qx is a parent o
30、f y,and x is male.ntake:CAUSE(x,(HAVE(x,y)qx causes x to have y.ngive:CAUSE(x,(HAVE(x,y)qx causes x not to have y.Predication analysisn1)Themeaningofasentenceisnottobeworkedoutbyaddingupallthemeaningsofitscomponentwords,ne.g“Thedogbitestheman”issemanticallydifferentfrom“Themanbitesthedog”thoughtheir
31、componentsareexactlythesame.Predication analysisn2)Therearetwoaspectstosentencemeaning:grammaticalmeaningandsemanticmeaning,nE.g.*Greencloudsaresleepingfuriously.n*Sincerityshookhandswiththeblackapple.nWhetherasentenceissemanticallymeaningfulisgovernedbyrulescalledselectionalrestrictions.Predication
32、 analysisnPredicationanalysis-awaytoanalyzesentencemeaning.nItproposedbyBritishG.Leech.nPredication-theabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.Apredicationconsistsofargument(s)andpredicate.Predication analysisnAnargumentisalogicalparticipantinapredication,largelyidenticalwiththenominalelementsinasentence
33、.nApredicateissomethingsaidaboutanargumentoritstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsinasentence.Predication analysisnTomsmokes.TOM(SMOKE)nThetreegrowswell.TREE(GROW)nThekidslikeapples.KIDSAPPLE(LIKE)nIsenthimaletter.IHIMLETTER(SEND)Predication analysisnAccording to the number of argumentscontained in a predication,we may classifythepredicationsintothefollowingtypes:Predication analysisnOne-place predication:smoke,grow,rise,run,nTwo-place predication:like,love,save,bite,beat,nThree-placepredication:give,sent,promise,call,nNo-placepredication:Itishot.
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