2022年《新编简明英语语言学教程》 .pdf
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1、Chapter 1 1. Language can be generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language is a system. Systematic - rule-governed, elements in it are arranged according to certain rules; can t be combined at will. e.g. *bkli, *I apple eat.Language is arbitrary. Arb
2、itrary- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g. “ pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with. Language is symbolic in nature. Symbolic - words are associated with objects, actions ideas by convention. “ A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”-Shak
3、espeare 2. The design/defining features of human language (Charles Hockett) Arbitrariness No logical (motivated or intrinsic) connection between sounds and meaningsOnomatopoeic words (which imitate natural sounds) are somewhat motivated ( English: rumble, crackle, bang, . Chinese: putong, shasha, di
4、ngdang )Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary, e.g. type-writer, shoe-maker, air-conditioner, photocopy Productivity/Creativity Peculiar to human languages,users of language can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before, e.g. we can understand sentence like “ A red -eyed
5、 elephant is dancing on the hotel bed”, though it does not describe a common happening in the world.A gibbon call system is not productive for gibbon draw all their calls from a fixed repertoire which is rapidly exhausted, making any novelty impossible. The bee dance does have a limited productivity
6、, as it is used to communicate about food sources in any direction. But food sources are the only kind of messages that can be sent through the bee dance; bees do not “ talk” about themselves, the hives, or wind, let alone about people, animals, hopes or desires Duality Lower level-sounds (meaningle
7、ss) Higher level-meaning (larger units of meaning)A communication system with duality is considered more flexible than one without it, for a far greater number of messages can be sent. A small number of sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning (words), and the unit
8、s of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. (We make dictionary of a language, but we cannot make a dictionary of sentences of that language.Displacement Language can be used to refer to things, which are not present: real or imagined matters in the past, presen
9、t or future, or in far-away places. A gibbon never utters a call about something he ate last year There is something special about the bee dance though. Bees communicate with other bees about the food sources they have found when they are no longer in the presence of the food. In this sense, the bee
10、 dance has a component of displacement. But this component is very insignificant. For the bees must communicate about the food immediately on returning to the hive. They do not dance about the food they discovered last month nor do they speculate about future discoveries. Cultural transmission 名师资料总
11、结 - - -精品资料欢迎下载 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 名师精心整理 - - - - - - - 第 1 页,共 14 页 - - - - - - - - - Language is culturally transmitted (through teaching and learning; rather than by instinct). Animal call systems are genetically transmitted. All cats, gibbons and bees have systems which are almo
12、st identical to those of all other cats, gibbons and bees. A Chinese speaker and an English speaker are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. That is, it is pass on from one generation to the next by teaching and learning, rather than by instinct. The story o
13、f a wolf child, a pig child shows that a human being brought up in isolation simply does not acquire human language. 3. Some important distinctions in linguistics Prescriptive vs. DescriptiveDescriptive - describe/analyze linguistic facts observed or language people actually use (modern linguistic)
14、Prescriptive - lay down rules for “correct ” linguistic behavior in using language (traditional grammar) Synchronic vs. diachronic Synchronic study- description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics) Diachronic study- description of a language through time (historical development o
15、f language over a period of time)Speech vs. writing Speech - primary medium of language Writing - later developed Langue vs. parole (F. de Saussure) Langue - the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community. Parole - the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure takes
16、 a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions. Competence and performance (Chomsky) Competence - the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language Performance - the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication Chomsky looks at la
17、nguage from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual. Chapter 2 1. Speech organs : three important areas Pharyngeal cavity - the throat; The oral cavity - the mouth; Nasal cavity - the nose. 2. The diagram of speech organs Lips Tip of tongue Te
18、eth Blade of tongue Teeth ridge (alveolar) Back of tongue Hard palate Vocal cords Soft palate (velum) Pharyngeal cavity Uvula Nasal cavity 名师资料总结 - - -精品资料欢迎下载 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 名师精心整理 - - - - - - - 第 2 页,共 14 页 - - - - - - - - - 3.Minimal pai r-when two different forms are identic
19、al (the same) in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair, e.g. beat, bit, bet, bat, boot, but, bait, bite, boat.4. Phone, phoneme, allophone A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech soun
20、ds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don t, e.g. bI:t & bIt , spIt & spIt.A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represente
21、d by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in pIt, tIp and spIt. Allophones - the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments 5. The features that a phoneme possesses, making it different from other phonemes, are i
22、ts distinctive features. Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair 6. Suprasegmental features Stress Word stress The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, e.g. a shift in stress in English may change the part of speech of a word: Verb: im port; in crease; re bel;
23、 re cord Noun: import; increase; rebel; record Similar alteration of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements: Compound: blackbird; greenhouse; hotdog Noun phrase: black ,bird; green house; hot dogThe meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is al
24、so manifested in the combinations of -ing forms and nouns: Modifier: dining-room ; ?readingroom; ?sleepingbag Doer: sleeping baby; swimming fish; flying plane Sentence stress Sentence stress-the relative force given to the components of a sentence. Generally, nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs,
25、numerals and demonstrative pronouns are stressed. Other categories like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs prepositions and conjunctions are usually not 名师资料总结 - - -精品资料欢迎下载 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 名师精心整理 - - - - - - - 第 3 页,共 14 页 - - - - - - - - - stressed. Note: for pragmatic
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